digitallawJournal of Digital Technologies and LawJournal of Digital Technologies and Law2949-2483Kazan Innovative University named after V. G. Timiryasov10.21202/jdtl.2025.5joupztdigitallaw-511Research ArticleARTICLESСТАТЬИBehavioral Biometrics in the European Union: Legal Challenges and Technological ProspectsПоведенческая биометрия в Европейском союзе: правовые вызовы и технологические перспективыhttps://orcid.org/0000-0003-3948-9977РахметовБ.RakhmetovB.

Рахметов Бауржан – PhD в области политологии и международных отношений, ассистент-профессор, Международная школа экономики

010000, г. Астана, Коргалжинское шоссе, 8 

Baurzhan Rakhmetov – PhD (Politics and International Relations), Assistant Professor, International School of Economics

8 Korgalzhyn street, 010000, Astana

b_rakhmetov@kazguu.kzhttps://orcid.org/0009-0009-8241-8016ХайзабековК.KhaizabekovK.

Хайзабеков Казбек – магистрант в области европеистики и глобальных исследований, кафедра политологии, права и международных исследований

35122, г. Падуя, ул. 8 февраля, 2

Kazbek Khaizabekov – Master’s Student, European and Global Studies, Department of Political Science, Law, and International Studies

Via VIII Febbraio, 2, 35122 Padova PD

khaizabekovk@gmail.comУниверситет КАЗГЮУ имени М. С. НарикбаеваКазахстанM. Narikbayev KAZGUU UniversityKazakhstanПадуанский университетИталияUniversity of PadovaItaly20252703202531108–124Copyright © Rakhmetov B., Khaizabekov K., 20252025Рахметов Б., Хайзабеков К.Rakhmetov B., Khaizabekov K.Данная работа распространяется под лицензией Creative Commons Attribution 4.0.This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.https://www.lawjournal.digital/jour/article/view/511Objective

Objective: to study the historical development of the European Union legislation on behavioral biometrics; to identify the features of the European approach to the regulation of behavioral biometrics, to assess its advantages and disadvantages.

Methods

Methods: general scientific methods of analysis and comparison, with an emphasis on the study of legal texts such as directives, regulations and conventions. To ensure a comprehensive understanding of the issue, the authors also consider the technical aspects of behavioral biometrics, which allows for a comprehensive analysis of both legal norms and the technological processes underlying them.

Results

Results: the research demonstrates that the European Union regulatory legal framework on biometrics does not clearly distinguish between behavioral and physical biometrics technologies. This leads to ambiguity in understanding the risks and opportunities associated with the use of behavioral biometrics. The authors emphasize that the insufficiently specific legislation creates significant difficulties for regulators, technology developers, and end users.

Scientific novelty

Scientific novelty: the article is the first comprehensive study of the historical development of European Union legislation on behavioral biometrics. The work reveals the key characteristics of the European approach, its strengths and weaknesses, and compares it with the United States’ regulatory practice. The study reveals the key aspects that require further regulation: from a clear definition of behavioral biometrics to the development of comprehensive mechanisms to ensure transparency and accountability in the use of these 

technologies

technologies. Given that behavioral biometrics is a relatively new and rapidly developing technology, the research is important for understanding current challenges and prospects for its regulation.

Practical significance

Practical significance: the research is multifaceted and relevant for experts in digital technologies: legal scholars, law enforcement officers, legislators, and developers of artificial intelligence and biometrics technologies.

Цель

Цель: изучение исторического развития законодательства Европейского союза в области поведенческой биометрии, выявление особенностей европейского подхода к регулированию поведенческой биометрии, а также оценка его преимуществ и недостатков.

Методы

Методы: общенаучные методы анализа и сравнения с акцентом на изучение юридических текстов, таких как директивы, регламенты и конвенции. Для обеспечения всестороннего понимания проблемы авторы также рассматривают технические аспекты поведенческой биометрии, что позволяет провести комплексный анализ как правовых норм, так и технологических процессов, лежащих в их основе.

Результаты

Результаты: нормативная правовая база Европейского союза в области биометрии недостаточно четко разграничивает технологии поведенческой и физической биометрии. Это приводит к неоднозначности в понимании рисков и возможностей, связанных с использованием поведенческой биометрии. Авторы подчеркивают, что отсутствие конкретики в законодательстве создает значительные трудности для регулирующих органов, разработчиков технологий и конечных пользователей.

Научная новизна

Научная новизна: заключается в том, что она представляет собой первое комплексное исследование исторического развития законодательства Европейского союза в области поведенческой биометрии. В статье раскрываются ключевые характеристики европейского подхода, его сильные и слабые стороны, а также проводится сравнительный анализ с опытом регулирования в Соединенных Штатах. В исследовании детально раскрываются ключевые аспекты, требующие дальнейшего законодательного урегулирования: от четкой дефиниции поведенческой биометрии до разработки комплексных механизмов обеспечения прозрачности и подотчетности при использовании данных технологий. Учитывая, что поведенческая биометрия является относительно новой и быстро развивающейся технологией, такое исследование имеет важное значение для понимания современных вызовов и перспектив ее регулирования.

Практическая значимость

Практическая значимость: определяется его многогранным характером и актуальностью для широкого круга специалистов в сфере цифровых технологий: от ученых-­правоведов, правоприменителей и законодателей до разработчиков технологий искусственного интеллекта и биометрии.

Европейский союззаконодательствозащита данныхискусственный интеллектконфиденциальностьповеденческая биометрияправоправовое регулированиераспознавание лиццифровые технологииartificial intelligencebehavioral biometricsdata protectiondigital technologiesEuropean Unionfacial recognitionlawlegal regulationlegislationprivacyReferencesAlsaadi, E. (2021). Study on Most Popular Behavioral Biometrics, Advantages, Disadvantages and Recent Applications: A Review. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.28802.09926Alsaadi, E. (2021). Study on Most Popular Behavioral Biometrics, Advantages, Disadvantages and Recent Applications: A Review. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.28802.09926Arcila, B. B. (2024). AI liability in Europe: How does it complement risk regulation and deal with the problem of human oversight? Computer Law & Security Review, 54, 106012. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2024.106012Arcila, B. B. (2024). AI liability in Europe: How does it complement risk regulation and deal with the problem of human oversight? Computer Law & Security Review, 54, 106012. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2024.106012Aseri, A. (2020). The Implication of the European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) on the Global Data Privacy. Journal of Theoretical and Applied Information Technology, 98(4), 692–702.Aseri, A. (2020). The Implication of the European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) on the Global Data Privacy. Journal of Theoretical and Applied Information Technology, 98(4), 692–702.Carrigan, C., & Coglianese, C. (2011). The Politics of Regulation: From New Institutionalism to New Governance. Annual Review of Political Science, 14(1), 107–129. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.032408.171344Carrigan, C., & Coglianese, C. (2011). The Politics of Regulation: From New Institutionalism to New Governance. Annual Review of Political Science, 14(1), 107–129. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.032408.171344Chen, C., Frey, C. B., & Presidente, G. (2022). Privacy Regulation and Firm Performance: Estimating the GDPR Effect Globally. Oxford Martin School.Chen, C., Frey, C. B., & Presidente, G. (2022). Privacy Regulation and Firm Performance: Estimating the GDPR Effect Globally. Oxford Martin School.Cheung, W., & Vhaduri, S. (2020). Continuous Authentication of Wearable Device Users from Heart Rate, Gait, and Breathing Data. 2020 8th IEEE RAS/EMBS International Conference for Biomedical Robotics and Biomechatronics (BioRob), 587–592. https://doi.org/10.1109/BioRob49111.2020.9224356Cheung, W., & Vhaduri, S. (2020). Continuous Authentication of Wearable Device Users from Heart Rate, Gait, and Breathing Data. 2020 8th IEEE RAS/EMBS International Conference for Biomedical Robotics and Biomechatronics (BioRob), 587–592. https://doi.org/10.1109/BioRob49111.2020.9224356De Hert, P. (2013). Biometrics and the Challenge to Human Rights in Europe. Need for Regulation and Regulatory Distinctions. In: P. Campisi (Eds.), Security and Privacy in Biometrics (pp. 369–413). Springer London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978­1­4471­5230­9_15De Hert, P. (2013). Biometrics and the Challenge to Human Rights in Europe. Need for Regulation and Regulatory Distinctions. In: P. Campisi (Eds.), Security and Privacy in Biometrics (pp. 369–413). Springer London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978­1­4471­5230­9_15Eberz, S., Rasmussen, K. B., Lenders, V., & Martinovic, I. (2017). Evaluating Behavioral Biometrics for Continuous Authentication: Challenges and Metrics. Proceedings of the 2017 ACM on Asia Conference on Computer and Communications Security, 386–399. https://doi.org/10.1145/3052973.3053032Eberz, S., Rasmussen, K. B., Lenders, V., & Martinovic, I. (2017). Evaluating Behavioral Biometrics for Continuous Authentication: Challenges and Metrics. Proceedings of the 2017 ACM on Asia Conference on Computer and Communications Security, 386–399. https://doi.org/10.1145/3052973.3053032Ghelardi, E.­M. (2020). Closing the Data Gap: Protecting Biometric Information Under the Biometric Information Privacy Act and the California Consumer Protection Act. St. John’s Law Review, 94(3).Ghelardi, E.­M. (2020). Closing the Data Gap: Protecting Biometric Information Under the Biometric Information Privacy Act and the California Consumer Protection Act. St. John’s Law Review, 94(3).Greenleaf, G. (2012). The Influence of European Data Privacy Standards Outside Europe: Implications for Globalization of Convention 108. International Data Privacy Law, 2(2), 68–92. https://doi.org/10.1093/idpl/ips006Greenleaf, G. (2012). The Influence of European Data Privacy Standards Outside Europe: Implications for Globalization of Convention 108. International Data Privacy Law, 2(2), 68–92. https://doi.org/10.1093/idpl/ips006Illman, E. J. (2017). Data Privacy Laws Targeting Biometric and Geolocation Technologies. The Business Lawyer, 73(1), 191–198.Illman, E. J. (2017). Data Privacy Laws Targeting Biometric and Geolocation Technologies. The Business Lawyer, 73(1), 191–198.Kindt, E. (2018). Having Yes, Using No? About the New Legal Regime for Biometric Data. Computer Law & Security Review, 34(3), 523–538. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2017.11.004Kindt, E. (2018). Having Yes, Using No? About the New Legal Regime for Biometric Data. Computer Law & Security Review, 34(3), 523–538. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2017.11.004Li, H., Yu, L., & He, W. (2019). The Impact of GDPR on Global Technology Development. Journal of Global Information Technology Management, 22(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1080/1097198X.2019.1569186Li, H., Yu, L., & He, W. (2019). The Impact of GDPR on Global Technology Development. Journal of Global Information Technology Management, 22(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1080/1097198X.2019.1569186Meden, B., Rot, P., Terhorst, P., Damer, N., Kuijper, A., Scheirer, W. J., Ross, A., Peer, P., & Struc, V. (2021). Privacy–Enhancing Face Biometrics: A Comprehensive Survey. IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security, 16, 4147–4183. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIFS.2021.3096024Meden, B., Rot, P., Terhorst, P., Damer, N., Kuijper, A., Scheirer, W. J., Ross, A., Peer, P., & Struc, V. (2021). Privacy–Enhancing Face Biometrics: A Comprehensive Survey. IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security, 16, 4147–4183. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIFS.2021.3096024Neace, G. (2020). Biometric Privacy: Blending Employment Law with the Growth of Technology. UIC Law Review, 53(1).Neace, G. (2020). Biometric Privacy: Blending Employment Law with the Growth of Technology. UIC Law Review, 53(1).Nguyen, F. Q. (2018). The Standard for Biometric Data Protection. Journal of Law & Cyber Warfare, 7(1), 61–84.Nguyen, F. Q. (2018). The Standard for Biometric Data Protection. Journal of Law & Cyber Warfare, 7(1), 61–84.Rawat, Y., Gupta, Y., Khothari, G., Mittal, A., & Rautela, D. (2023). The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Biometrics. 2023 2nd International Conference on Edge Computing and Applications (ICECAA), 622–626. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICECAA58104.2023.10212224Rawat, Y., Gupta, Y., Khothari, G., Mittal, A., & Rautela, D. (2023). The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Biometrics. 2023 2nd International Conference on Edge Computing and Applications (ICECAA), 622–626. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICECAA58104.2023.10212224Revett, K. (2008). Behavioral Biometrics: A Remote Access Approach. Wiley.Revett, K. (2008). Behavioral Biometrics: A Remote Access Approach. Wiley.Rezaee, K. (2025). Machine Learning and Facial Recognition for Down Syndrome Detection: A Comprehensive review. Computers in Human Behavior Reports, 17, 100600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chbr.2025.100600Rezaee, K. (2025). Machine Learning and Facial Recognition for Down Syndrome Detection: A Comprehensive review. Computers in Human Behavior Reports, 17, 100600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chbr.2025.100600Sharma, M., & Elmiligi, H. (2022). Behavioral Biometrics: Past, Present and Future. Recent Advances in Biometrics. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102841Sharma, M., & Elmiligi, H. (2022). Behavioral Biometrics: Past, Present and Future. Recent Advances in Biometrics. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102841Xefteris, S., Doulamis, N., Andronikou, V., Varvarigou, T., & Cambourakis, G. (2016). Behavioral Biometrics in Assisted Living: A Methodology for Emotion Recognition. Engineering, Technology & Applied Science Research, 6(4), 1035–1044. https://doi.org/10.48084/etasr.634Xefteris, S., Doulamis, N., Andronikou, V., Varvarigou, T., & Cambourakis, G. (2016). Behavioral Biometrics in Assisted Living: A Methodology for Emotion Recognition. Engineering, Technology & Applied Science Research, 6(4), 1035–1044. https://doi.org/10.48084/etasr.634

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.