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<article article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.3" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xml:lang="en"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">digitallaw</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title xml:lang="en">Journal of Digital Technologies and Law</journal-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Journal of Digital Technologies and Law</trans-title></trans-title-group></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="epub">2949-2483</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Kazan Innovative University named after V. G. Timiryasov</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.21202/jdtl.2025.4</article-id><article-id custom-type="edn" pub-id-type="custom">mbwjxf</article-id><article-id custom-type="elpub" pub-id-type="custom">digitallaw-510</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="section-heading" xml:lang="en"><subject>ARTICLES</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="section-heading" xml:lang="ru"><subject>СТАТЬИ</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Constitutional-Legal Aspect of Creating Large Language Models: the Problem of Digital Inequality and Linguistic Discrimination</article-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Конституционно-правовой аспект создания больших языковых моделей: проблема цифрового неравенства и языковой дискриминации</trans-title></trans-title-group></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1076-2765</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>Ильин</surname><given-names>И. Г.</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Ilin</surname><given-names>I. G.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>Ильин Илья Геннадьевич – магистр права в области информационных технологий, аспирант юридического факультета</p><p>199106, г. Санкт-Петербург, 22-я линия В.О., 7</p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Ilya G. Ilin – Master of Law (information technologies), postgraduate student, Faculty of Law</p><p>22nd line of Vasilievsky Island, 7199106 Saint Petersburg</p></bio><email xlink:type="simple">i.g.ilin@spbu.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-1"/></contrib></contrib-group><aff-alternatives id="aff-1"><aff xml:lang="ru"><institution>Санкт-Петербургский государственный университет</institution><country>Россия</country></aff><aff xml:lang="en"><institution>Saint Petersburg State University</institution><country>Russian Federation</country></aff></aff-alternatives><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2025</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>27</day><month>03</month><year>2025</year></pub-date><volume>3</volume><issue>1</issue><elocation-id>89–107</elocation-id><permissions><copyright-statement>Copyright &amp;#x00A9; Ilin I.G., 2025</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2025</copyright-year><copyright-holder xml:lang="ru">Ильин И.Г.</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="en">Ilin I.G.</copyright-holder><license xml:lang="ru" license-type="creative-commons-attribution" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xlink:type="simple"><license-p>Данная работа распространяется под лицензией Creative Commons Attribution 4.0.</license-p></license><license xml:lang="en" license-type="creative-commons-attribution" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xlink:type="simple"><license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.</license-p></license></permissions><self-uri xlink:href="https://www.lawjournal.digital/jour/article/view/510">https://www.lawjournal.digital/jour/article/view/510</self-uri><abstract><sec><title>Objective</title><p>Objective: to study the impact of digital inequality on the implementation of constitutional human rights; to identify the risks of linguistic discrimination associated with the development and use of large language models.</p></sec><sec><title>Methods</title><p>Methods: formal-legal and comparative-legal methods, as well as the method of theoretical modeling. These approaches are complemented by general scientific methods of cognition, allowing for a comprehensive analysis of the legal, technological and social aspects of the issue.</p></sec><sec><title>Results</title><p>Results: the research found that, in relation to large language models, digital inequality arises due to the uneven digitalization of languages and manifests itself in limited access to natural language processing technology. In turn, unequal access to this technology can negatively affect the implementation of constitutionally guaranteed rights and can be viewed from the viewpoint of equality and non-discrimination concepts. The author emphasizes that unequal access to natural language processing technologies can exacerbate existing social and economic inequalities and create new forms of discrimination.</p></sec><sec><title>Scientific novelty</title><p>Scientific novelty: hidden and indirect forms of discrimination are analyzed that manifest themselves in artificial intelligence systems, especially in generative models. While direct forms of discrimination can be detected in predictive algorithms, generative models create more subtle but no less significant cumulative effects. These effects contribute to the formation of social stereotypes and inequalities in areas such as professional activity, gender and ethnicity. The author also draws attention to the fact that with the increasing autonomy of artificial intelligence, traditional approaches </p><p>to discrimination detection are becoming less effective, which requires the development of new analysis and regulation methods.</p></sec><sec><title>Practical significance</title><p>Practical significance: the results provide a basis for identifying and assessing the legal risks associated with unequal access to digital products using natural language processing. This contributes to the improvement of legal regulation in the field of the development and use of artificial intelligence technologies. The article offers recommendations for lawmakers, regulators, and technology developers aimed at minimizing the risks of digital inequality and linguistic discrimination.</p></sec></abstract><trans-abstract xml:lang="ru"><sec><title>Цель</title><p>Цель: исследование влияния цифрового неравенства на реализацию конституционных прав человека, а также выявление рисков языковой дискриминации, связанных с разработкой и использованием больших языковых моделей.</p></sec><sec><title>Методы</title><p>Методы: формально-юридический и сравнительно-правовой методы, а также метод теоретического моделирования. Эти подходы дополняют ся общенаучными методами познания, что позволяет провести комплексный анализ правовых, технологических и социальных аспектов проблемы.</p></sec><sec><title>Результаты</title><p>Результаты: было установлено, что применительно к большим языковым моделям цифровое неравенство возникает из-за неравномерного уровня цифровизации языков и проявляется в ограниченном доступе к технологии обработки естественного языка. В свою очередь, неравный доступ к указанной технологии может негативно влиять на реализацию конституционно гарантированных прав и может быть рассмотрен с точки зрения концепций «равенства» и запрета на дискриминацию. Автор подчеркивает, что неравный доступ к технологиям обработки естественного языка может усугублять существующие социальные и экономические неравенства, создавая новые формы дискриминации.</p></sec><sec><title>Научная новизна</title><p>Научная новизна: заключается в анализе скрытых и косвенных форм дискриминации, которые проявляются в системах искусственного интеллекта, особенно в генеративных моделях. В отличие от прямых форм дискриминации, которые могут быть выявлены в предсказательных алгоритмах, генеративные модели создают более тонкие, но не менее значимые кумулятивные эффекты. Эти эффекты способствуют формированию социальных стереотипов и неравенства в таких областях, как профессиональная деятельность, гендерная и этническая принадлежность. Автор также обращает внимание на то, что с увеличением автономности искусственного интеллекта традиционные подходы к выявлению дискриминации становятся менее эффективными, что требует разработки новых методов анализа и регулирования.</p></sec><sec><title>Практическая значимость</title><p>Практическая значимость: состоит в том в том, что его результаты предоставляют основу для выявления и оценки правовых рисков, связанных с неравным доступом к цифровым продуктам, использующим технологии обработки естественного языка. Это способствует совершенствованию правового регулирования в сфере разработки и использования технологий искусственного интеллекта. Статья предлагает рекомендации для законодателей, регулирующих органов и разработчиков технологий, направленные на минимизацию рисков цифрового неравенства и языковой дискриминации.</p></sec></trans-abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="ru"><kwd>большие языковые модели</kwd><kwd>генеративный искусственный интеллект</kwd><kwd>искусственный интеллект</kwd><kwd>конституционные права</kwd><kwd>обработка естественного языка</kwd><kwd>права человека</kwd><kwd>право</kwd><kwd>цифровое неравенство</kwd><kwd>цифровые технологии</kwd><kwd>языковая дискриминация</kwd></kwd-group><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><kwd>artificial intelligence</kwd><kwd>constitutional rights</kwd><kwd>digital inequality</kwd><kwd>digital technologies</kwd><kwd>generative artificial intelligence</kwd><kwd>human rights</kwd><kwd>large language models</kwd><kwd>law</kwd><kwd>linguistic discrimination</kwd><kwd>natural language processing</kwd></kwd-group></article-meta></front><back><ref-list><title>References</title><ref id="cit1"><label>1</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Миронова, М. 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